Developments in nanotechnology, the manipulation of matter on the scale of 1 nm to 100 nm, have yielded materials and devices with applicability in medicine, electronics, and energy production, to name a few. Conventionally, there have been two approaches to continued developments in nanotechnology: bottom-up and top-down. Bottom-up approaches arrange nano-components into complex assemblies and have been useful in molecular assembly, atomic force microscopy, and DNA engineering. Top-down approaches create smaller devices by utilizing the influences of larger devices. For example, atomic layer deposition (“ALD”) is a process by which semiconductor elements are built at atomic-layer scales.
However, these conventional nanotechnology methods and devices are not readily adaptable to enhancing or suppressing spatio-temporal electric field distributions so as to facilitate desired intercellular interactions. With improved spatial resolution of the electric fields, manipulation of nano-objects may become more reliable and efficient for bio-printing, bio-sensor fabrication, and tissue fabrication.